汉语文化冷知识系列：中国古代饮食文化简史 | A Brief HISTORY of Ancient Chinese FOOD Culture | Learn Mandarin w/ Eng Sub

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with synchronized English subtitles.

“People regard food as their heaven.”

But have you ever wondered:

did people in ancient times also eat three meals a day?

What did they eat every day?

What were their staple foods,

meats, seafood, vegetables, and fruits?

What seasonings did they commonly use?

And what special practices did they follow in cooking?

Today, let’s travel back in time,

and step into the world of ancient Chinese cuisine.

The eating habits of ancient Chinese people were not fixed;

they changed over time with dynasties, social classes, and economic development.

From the pre-Qin period to the Han dynasty, people generally had two meals a day:

a morning meal around 9–10 a.m., called “朝食(zhāo shí)”, or “饔(yōng)”,

and an afternoon meal around 3–4 p.m., called “夕食(xī shí)” or 餔(bū)/飧(sūn).

During the Wei and Jin periods,

three meals a day gradually became common among the aristocratic classes.

In the Sui and Tang dynasties, with economic prosperity

and increased daytime activity,

people began adding a midday snack,

though ordinary commoners mostly still had two meals,

while scholars and officials generally had three.

In the Song dynasty, with thriving commerce and bustling night markets,

three meals a day became popular among commoners,

and the culture of late-night snacks even emerged.

By the Ming and Qing dynasties, the three-meal system was basically established.

It is worth noting that

the Qing imperial family, following Manchu tradition,

maintained only two meals a day (morning and evening),

while among the general population, three meals a day had become the norm.

In this way, the practice of three meals a day gradually became the standard habit we know today.

Next, let’s take a look at the main types of food in ancient times.

It is important to note that

most common people often went hungry and survived mainly on wild vegetables;

many of the ingredients we know today were primarily consumed by the nobility.

As early as the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods,

a variety of grains were recorded:

millet (粟), glutinous millet (黍), sorghum (稷),

wheat (小麦), barley (大麦), rice (稻),

soybeans (菽), hemp seeds (麻), black long-grain rice (苽米),

adzuki beans (赤豆), coix seeds (薏苡), and gorgon fruit (芡).

Common nuts included chestnuts (栗) and hazelnuts (榛).

Vegetables available in the pre-Qin period included:

leafy vegetables such as amaranth and cabbage varieties (葵),

chives (韭), young legume leaves (藿),

and brassica (芸);

seasoning vegetables such as wild garlic (薤),

green onions (葱), and ginger (姜);

gourds and root vegetables including bottle gourd (瓠),

turnip (芜菁), bamboo shoots (笋),

young reed stems (蒲), Chinese water celery (芹),

lotus root (莲藕), water bamboo (茭白), water caltrop (菱), and taro (芋).

Fruits included peach, plum(李), apricot, jujube (枣), sour jujube (棘),

pear, Chinese crabapple (柰), Chinese hawthorn (柤),

Chinese sour plum (梅), orange (橘), pomelo (柚),

cherry (樱桃), persimmon (柿子), mulberry (桑葚), and etc.

After the Han dynasty,

following Zhang Qian’s missions to the Western Regions,

the variety of food ingredients greatly expanded.

Products introduced from the West included cucumbers (胡瓜/黄瓜),

walnuts (胡桃/核桃), garlic (大蒜), cilantro (胡荽/香菜),

sesame seeds (胡麻/芝麻), carrots (胡萝卜), pomegranates (石榴), and etc.

During the Tang dynasty, new varieties such as figs(无花果),

spinach(菠菜), lettuce (莴苣/莴笋), and pistachios (开心果) were added.

In the Northern and Southern Song periods,

watermelon and sponge gourd were introduced.

By the Ming dynasty,

crops such as pineapple, chili peppers, pumpkin, bitter melon,

potatoes, sweet potatoes, sunflower,

corn, and peanuts were gradually brought in,

many of which are now essential ingredients on Chinese dining tables.

In the Qing dynasty,

strawberries and apples—flavors similar to those we enjoy today—appeared in China,

along with overseas imports like cauliflower, cabbage, and onions.

As for tomatoes, although introduced during the Ming dynasty,

they were long grown only as ornamental plants

and did not appear on Chinese tables until the late Qing dynasty.

In ancient China,

cattle, sheep, pigs, horses, dogs, and chickens

were collectively known as the “Six Domestic Animals” (六牲).

During the pre-Qin period,

the main sources of meat included

cattle, sheep, pigs, dogs, and chickens,

as well as a wide variety of freshwater fish from rivers and lakes,

such as carp, crucian carp, mandarin fish,

soft-shelled turtle, silver carp, and Chinese yellow eel, among others.

Additionally, wild game obtained through hunting

—such as deer, wild boar, and geese—was consumed.

The strict dietary hierarchy of the time is recorded in Guoyu·Chuyu Xia:

“Tiān zǐ shí tài láo, niú yáng shǐ sān shēng jù quán,

zhū hóu shí niú, qīng shí yáng,

dà fū shí shǐ, shì shí yú zhì, shùrén shí cài. ”

This shows that only the emperor could freely eat beef, mutton, and pork;

feudal lords could eat beef; ministers could eat mutton;

officials could eat pork; scholars could eat fish;

while ordinary people mostly survived on wild vegetables.

By the Warring States period, as ritual restrictions loosened,

dog meat became more commonly consumed among commoners,

and specialized dog butchers (“狗屠”) emerged.

After the Sui and Tang dynasties,

eating dog meat gradually declined.

It is also worth noting that

Tang dynasty people especially favored raw fish (鱼鲙, similar to sashimi) and mutton.

Historical records indicate that

the main cooking methods in pre-Qin China included boiling and roasting,

supplemented by steaming with wine and blanching,

and techniques for preserving food, such as pickling and air-drying, had already emerged.

Cooking meat and vegetables in water

to make soups, porridges, or thick broths

was the most basic and common form of food,

while roasted meat was a delicacy mostly reserved for the nobility.

At that time, fats were primarily animal-based,

and vegetable oils did not appear until the Eastern Han Dynasty.

With advances in pressing technology

and the cultivation of oil-producing crops during the Song Dynasty,

vegetable oils became widespread.

It was also from the Song Dynasty that

stir-frying, using vegetable oil as a base,

began to flourish and gradually became

one of the signature techniques of Chinese cuisine.

The earliest seasonings used in ancient China were primarily

salt, sour plums, and wine.

As early as the Yangshao Culture, around five thousand years ago,

people were already able to produce salt from seawater,

and the legend of Su Sha producing salt by boiling the sea was passed down.

However, due to the difficulty of extraction,

limited production,

and long-term state control with heavy taxation,

salt was expensive

and often unaffordable for ordinary people.

Before vinegar became widespread,

sour plums—valued for their natural sourness

—served as an important seasoning to counteract fishy or gamey flavors.

As for wine,

Yi Di of the Xia Dynasty is regarded as the originator of winemaking.

By the Shang Dynasty,

people had mastered grain fermentation techniques

and could also make fruit wines from peaches, plums, and dates,

and by the Xia and Shang periods, wine was already widely used in cooking.

In addition to salt, sour plums, and wine,

sugar had already appeared by the Pre-Qin period.

The earliest sugar came from natural honey:

during the Zhou Dynasty, people used honey to preserve fruits;

in the Eastern Han, beekeeping began,

and by the Wei, Jin, and Northern and Southern Dynasties,

candied fruits (honeyed preserves) were produced.

After the Song Dynasty, honey was widely used in cooking,

desserts, and even winemaking.

Besides honey,

maltose had become a common seasoning

in the royal court as early as the Western Zhou period.

Both The Book of Songs (Shijing) and Zhou Li record it:

the solid form was called “xíng”, and the liquid form “yí”.

In theory, any starchy grain could be used to produce sugar,

but barley malt was most commonly used due to its high yield and superior taste,

thus it became collectively known as maltose.

During the Tang Dynasty, sugar-making techniques from India were introduced,

leading to large-scale sugarcane cultivation in Sichuan.

By the Song and Yuan periods,

specialized workshops for producing cane sugar had developed.

The regional culinary habit of “adding sugar in cooking” in Jiangsu and Zhejiang

gradually took shape during this time.

Notably, early Sichuan cuisine was also largely sweet,

but it was only after the Song Dynasty

that its flavor profile became richer and more diverse.

Next, let’s talk about sauces.

As early as the Zhou Dynasty, sauces were already used for seasoning.

At that time, the term “sauce” (jiàng) referred collectively to “hǎi” and “xī”:

“hǎi” denoted salty pastes made from fish or meat,

while “xī” referred to sour-flavored sauces or juices.

Later, people began making sauces from fruits and vegetables.

By the Han Dynasty,

“xī” had become independent, specifically referring to vinegar,

and meanwhile, bean-based seasonings—

soy sauce and fermented black beans (dòu chǐ)—emerged.

By the Ming Dynasty, bean pastes were widely used,

while fish and meat pastes gradually disappeared from everyday cuisine.

Speaking of sauces, vinegar deserves special mention.

In ancient China, vinegar was called “cu” or “bitter wine”

and its history predates that of soy sauce by centuries.

During the Western Zhou,

there were specialized artisans who brewed vinegar for the royal court.

The Fifty-Two Prescriptions from the Warring States period records its medicinal uses.

By the Han Dynasty, vinegar could be brewed from wine,

and the Qi Min Yao Shu of the Northern and Southern Dynasties

systematically documented 22 methods of vinegar production,

advancing the development and refinement of vinegar-making techniques.

Among all seasonings,

spicy flavors are perhaps the most addictive.

In ancient China, “spicy” (la) included not only Sichuan pepper,

black pepper, and chili peppers,

but also evodia fruit and ginger.

Before the Ming Dynasty,

the common people referred to Sichuan pepper, evodia fruit, and ginger

as the “Three Aromatics”, with Sichuan pepper ranking first.

The character “椒” (jiāo) originally referred specifically to 花椒 (Sichuan pepper),

which is mentioned multiple times in the Book of Songs.

During the Warring States period,

Sichuan pepper was used to enhance flavor and aroma;

the people of Chu even infused it in wine,

and it was often added to tea alongside cinnamon.

By the Northern Wei period,

Sichuan pepper had become widely used.

Before chili peppers were introduced to China in the late Ming,

Sichuan pepper was virtually the main source of spiciness in dishes.

By contrast, black pepper was an imported spice,

introduced to China via the Silk Road during the Han Dynasty.

Initially, it was an extremely expensive luxury reserved for the imperial court.

By the Tang Dynasty, black pepper became more widely circulated;

during the Song and Yuan dynasties,

maritime trade increased its import volume.

In the mid-to-late Ming Dynasty, cultivation began in southern China,

and as prices dropped,

black pepper finally became accessible to ordinary people,

becoming an important source of heat in daily cooking.

Evodia fruit was the second of the “Three Aromatics,”

with a history dating back to the Western Zhou,

and it was especially favored in Sichuan.

It already appeared in Sichuan cuisine by the Western Han

and became an essential seasoning by the Ming Dynasty.

The Compendium of Materia Medica (Bencao Gangmu) notes that

the Sichuan specialty “chili oil”

was traditionally made from evodia fruit and pork fat.

After the late Ming,

evodia fruit was gradually replaced by chili peppers,

which offered stronger heat and broader culinary applications.

Moreover, as the folk custom of wearing evodia fruit to ward off evil declined,

it became more a cultural symbol and medicinal ingredient

rather than a daily kitchen staple.

Ginger, the last of the “Three Aromatics,”

was indispensable in pre-Qin cuisine.

According to Lüshi Chunqiu,

the best ginger came from Yangpo in the Bashu region (modern Sichuan).

Ancient people commonly used ginger

to flavor meat dishes and preserved meats,

making it a staple pungent spice on the dining table.

Chili peppers are native to the tropical regions of Central and South America.

They were introduced to China by sea in the late Ming Dynasty,

initially only as ornamental plants.

It was not until the Qing Dynasty that

chili peppers began to be widely used as a seasoning.

During the Kangxi period,

due to a shortage of salt and the humid climate,

the people of Guizhou started using chili peppers as a substitute for salt,

and from there,

they spread to Yunnan, Hunan, and Sichuan.

After becoming popular in Southwest China,

chili peppers were brought from Sichuan to Hanzhong and,

through selective adaptation, developed varieties suited to northern climates,

gradually spreading to Guanzhong, Gansu, and Xinjiang.

By the late Qing,

chili peppers were commonly consumed in Guizhou, Sichuan, Hunan, and Hubei,

establishing the “no dish without spice” culinary culture,

and becoming a key seasoning in flavor-rich cuisines such as Sichuan and Hunan.

After the reform and opening-up period,

population movement and food industrialization further promoted

the nationwide popularity of chili peppers,

making them one of China’s most commonly used seasonings.

In just three to four hundred years,

chili peppers had deeply integrated into the Chinese dining table.

The ancients paid great attention to

seasoning in harmony with the seasons and the balance of hot and cold.

Liji · Neize records:

“Fán hé, chūn duō suān,

xià duō kǔ, qiū duō xīn, dōng duō xián.”

This means that flavors should follow the seasonal changes:

sour in spring,

bitter in summer, pungent in autumn,

and salty in winter,

while being blended into smooth and pleasant tastes.

The text also says:

“Fán shí qí shì chūn shí,

gēng qí shì xià shí, jiàng qí shì qiū shí,

yǐn qí shì dōng shí.”

In other words, staple foods should be served warm like spring,

soups hot like summer, sauces cool like autumn,

and drinks chilled like winter.

According to seasonal climate changes,

the ancients would also choose the most suitable birds and livestock

as sacrificial offerings or ingredients.

Zhou Li · Tiānguān Zhǒngzǎi records:

“Fán yòng qín xiàn, chūn xíng gāo tún, shàn gāo xiāng;

xià xíng jū sù, shàn gāo sāo;

qiū xíng dú mí, shàn gāo xīng;

dōng xíng xiān yǔ, shàn gāo shān.”

This passage specifies

the types of meat and cooking fats offered to the Son of Heaven in each season:

in spring, lamb and suckling pig were eaten, cooked with beef fat;

in summer, dried or roasted meats and

fermented or salted fish were used, cooked with dog fat;

in autumn, veal and young deer were eaten, cooked with pork fat;

in winter, fresh fish and wild geese were consumed, cooked with mutton fat.

This reflects the principle of seasonal health preservation:

spring favors growth and vitality, summer favors lightness,

autumn favors nourishment and moisture, and winter favors warmth and supplementation.

From two meals a day to the standardization of three,

from surviving on wild greens to a strictly ranked dietary system shaped by ritual,

and from salt, sour plums, and wine to sauces, vinegar, and pungent spices,

the ancient Chinese table carried not only the necessities of survival

but also reflected changing times, social structures, and health philosophies.

Although fine foods were never enjoyed by everyone,

careful thinking about seasonality, seasoning, and cooking methods

was passed down generation after generation,

ultimately shaping the rich and profound culinary culture of China today.

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